Greenhouse gases and agriculture

Greenhouse gases are created by chemical compounds found in the Earth’s atmosphere and allow sunlight to enter the atmosphere freely (eia, 2004).  Some of the sun’s energy is reflected back as infrared radiation, or heat, and is trapped by the greenhouse gases (eia, 2004).  If the system is working correctly, the same amount of energy coming into the atmosphere is equal to the amount going out.

Agriculture was responsible for 7% of the production of greenhouse gases in 2010 (EPA, 2012).   It is also responsible for 30% methane and 76% nitrous oxide emissions, which constitute about 13% of all greenhouse gases (Siikamäki, 2008).  Why should we care?  We should care because the more greenhouse gases we produce, the more heat is trapped on the Earth’s surface.

The agricultural sector can contribute to reducing greenhouse gases, however.  One way would be to increase soil carbon storage through improved land management or converting lands to trees or grasses (Siikamäki, 2008).    This could be quickly done, and complete carbon saturation can occur approximately 20-30 years after improving land management and 70-150 years after converting to trees or grasses ; however, the carbon stored in the soil can quickly be released back into the atmosphere (Siikamäki, 2008). 

Eia (2004)  What are greenhouse gases?  Retrieved on August 11, 2012, from http://www.eia.gov/oiaf/1605/ggccebro/chapter1.html

EPA (2012)  Sources of greenhouse gas emissions.  Retrieved on August 11, 2012, from http://epa.gov/climatechange/ghgemissions/sources.html

Siikamäki, Juha (2008)  Climate Change and U.S. Agriculture:  Examining the Connection.  Environment, vol 50, No 4, pg 36-49

Type 2 diabetes mellitus in the Asian American community

The Asian-American community is extremely diverse, representing nearly 50 countries and ethnic groups (NLM, 2010).  There are nearly 11 million Asian Americans, and that number is expected to triple by 2050 (NLM, 2010).   This diversity makes it difficult to pin down specific diseases for which Asian Americans are at higher risk.  However, Asian Americans tend to be at higher risk for osteoporosis, type 2 diabetes mellitus, cervical cancer, and smoking (GoldSea, 2012).

Asian Americans are at a higher risk for developing type 2 diabetes; however, there is no clear reason why (Mayo Clinic, 2012).   The Western diet that is high in fat and calories, genetic make up, and lower physical activity are all factors that contribute to the higher risk for type 2 diabetes (Joslin Diabetes Center, 2012).  The studies are still trying to determine if one plays a higher role than the other when it comes to type 2 diabetes.

Nutrition plays a large role in the prevention and maintenance of type 2 diabetes.  Since Asian Americans are at higher risk of getting diabetes while maintaining what is considered a normal BMI, they are cautioned against gaining any amount of weight (Joslin Diabetes Center, 2012).  Unfortunately, the typical Western diet is higher in fat and calories than the typical Asian diet, so weight gain happens.  Even when an Asian American is trying to stick to a traditional Asian diet, the ingredients readily available in the west are different enough from the ingredients available in Asia that the fat grams and calories will be different.

Carbohydrates are a necessary part of any dietary plan; however, type 2 diabetics should lean toward the complex carbohydrates as they are digested more slowly than the simple carbohydrates.  A person’s diet should consist of 40%-60% carbohydrates.  Keeping these carbohydrates complex and natural will provide vitamins, minerals, and fibers with the calories (MedlinePlus, 2012).  Processed sugars only tend to spike the blood sugars and provide empty calories; thus, adding to unnecessary weight gain.

Meals should contain protein and fats with the carbohydrates.  While carbohydrates provide the quick glucose for the body, protein provides amino acids necessary for rebuilding and repairing muscles that have been catabolized for energy.  Choosing complementary proteins, like red beans and brown rice, or lean meats and poultry is important for type 2 diabetics.

Fats are a great source of sustainable energy as it takes the body longer to convert fats into glucose.  However, those with type 2 diabetes need to keep the saturated fats as low as possible for heart health.  Type 2 diabetics should stick to lean meats and poultry, low-fat dairy products, use vegetable oils that contain poly- or monounsaturated fats, and fruits (WebMD, 2012).

A person suffering from type 2 diabetes would also need to keep the sodium levels low for heart health.  Using other spices will help provide flavor without the salt.  Also, processed foods are high in sodium, so it may be necessary to avoid those as well.

Persons suffering from type 2 diabetes will need to maintain blood sugar levels for optimal health.  Persons at risk for type 2 diabetes will need to consume a well-rounded diet to help reduce the risks for getting the disease.  Eating regular meals with a good balance of fats, carbohydrates, and proteins and ensuring that most calories consumed are nutritious will also help reduce the risks for getting the disease or help manage the disease once diagnosed.  As the Asian American diet tends to be higher in calories, fat, and sodium than traditional Asian diets, it is important for those at risk to keep track of their nutrition.

GoldSea (2012)  10 Top Asian American Health Risks.  Retrieved on August 7, 2012, from http://goldsea.com/Text/index.php?id=1596/

Joslin Diabetes Center (2012)  Why do people of Asian decent get diabetes?  Retrieved August 7, 2012, from http://aadi.joslin.org/content/asian/why-are-asians-higher-risk-diabetes

Mayo Clinic (2012)  Risk Factors.  Retrieved on August 7, 2012, from http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/type-2-diabetes/ds00585/dsection=risk-factors

MedlinePlus (2012)  Carbohydrates.  Retrieved on August 7, 2012, from http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/002469.htm

NLM (2010)  Asian American Health.  Retrieved on August 7, 2012, from asianamericanhealth.nlm.nih.gov

WebMD (2012)  Diabetes Health Center.  Retrieved on August 7, 2012, from http://diabetes.webmd.com/eating-right?page=2

The importance of breath

There has been a lot of talk about breathing.  The mantra, "Breathe in; breathe out" is often repeated during stressful times.  What is it about breathing that makes it so important?  Isn't it something our body automatically does?

The answer to the latter question is both yes and no.  Yes, we automatically take in and expel air without conscious thought.  No, we do not automatically breathe correctly.  We breathe for physical survival and not necessarily for mental stability or for health.

Proper breathing is extremely important precisely because it helps the body maintain a state of homeostasis.  If the body is out of whack internally, the chemical processes that help our different systems run will be out of whack as well.  Oxygen in and toxins out are essential to our bodies on a cellular level.

Proper breathing also helps maintain a proper mental balance.  Take a moment to run a slight experiment.  Breathe quickly and shallowly for 1 minute.  How do you feel?  Are you starting to feel light-headed and anxious?  Now, breathe deeply and slowly for 1 minute.  How do you feel?  Are you starting to feel calmer and more clear-headed?

In today's society, we have a tendency to be "chest breathers".  This means we breathe shallow, quicker breathes and utilize the top of our lungs more than the bottom.  Gunk tends to get stuck in the bottom of our lungs.  We feel more anxious and suffer from a tightness of the lungs or coughing fits when we practice yoga or a sport that requires deep breathing.

One solution is to become conscious of your breath.  Take 5 or 10 minutes each day to practice three-part breathing.  Sit with your right hand on the top of the sternum, right between your collar bones.  Feel the rise and fall of the upper chest for 6 breaths.  Now, place your left hand on your left rib cage.  Feel the rise of the upper chest and the expansion of the ribs as you breathe in; feel the contraction of the ribs and the fall of the upper chest as you breathe out.  Again, do this for 6 breaths.  Finally, fold your hands over your diaphram (right above the belly button, between the lower ribs).  Feel the rise of the upper chest, the expansion of the lungs, and the contraction of the diaphram as it moves to allow the lungs to expand fully.  As you exhale, feel the diaphram expand as it starts the movement of air; the lower lungs contract, the mid-part of the lungs contract, and the chest falls.  Think of it as a tube of toothpase filling from the top down and emptying from the bottom up.

By taking the time to breathe deeply, you not only are ensuring enough oxygen is getting into your system for balance, you are also working on releasing the toxins for health.  Try it for the next week and see how you feel.

The DASH diet and myocardial infarction

Damage to the heart after a heart attack is irreversible if treatment is not immediately sought.  The myocardial infarction risk factors are high blood cholesterol, high blood pressure, smoking, diabetes, weight (obesity), and family history (Kulick, 2011).  

One of the more common factors leading to myocardial infarction would be plaque.  Plaque can build up in the walls of the arteries, blocking off the flow of blood to the heart (Chen and Zieve, 2011).   A normal total cholesterol level is less than 200 mg/dl and borderline high cholesterol is 200-239 mg/dl (VanArsdale, 2011).  The higher the cholesterol levels, the more at risk a person is.  

High blood pressure is another common risk factor.  Stage 1 high blood pressure is 140-159 systolic (the top number, or the blood pressure when the heart beats while pumping blood) or 90-99 diastolic (the bottom number, or the blood pressure between beats) (NHLBI, 2011).  Also, if a person works a stressful job, his blood pressure may spike at times during the day.

Once a person has suffered a heart attack, care must be taken to ensure he does not stress his system during recovery.  Starting with a liquid diet and then moving up the chain to a regular textured diet would ensure the patient’s system has had time to rest and cleanse in order to avoid further complications.  When a heart-attack patient is stabilized and has been treated, he is generally advised to follow a low-salt, low-fat, low-cholesterol diet (WebMD, 2011).  This diet is designed to help keep the blood pressure and cholesterol levels in check.

It is important to be aware of one's sodium consumption; as well as, being aware of the saturated fats and cholesterol.  According to the Department of Health and Human Services, people who are middle age or older should consume less than 1500mg of sodium a day (WebMD, 2011).   Lowering the sodium in the diet can easily be done by avoiding canned or processed foods, checking the nutritional labels on products for less than 5% daily sodium, and using salt-free seasonings.  Check to see there are enough fruits and vegetables in the diet as well.  Fruits and vegetables are high in potassium, fiber, and magnesium and are low in sodium (WebMD, 2011).  They are excellent sources of heart-healthy foods.

One way to start a healthy nutritional plan after being identified with risk factors or after suffering a heart attack is by following the DASH Diet (Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension).  The DASH Diet is a guideline that has been shown to effectively lower blood pressure, and it would follow the guidelines set by the hospital’s dietician (WebMD, 2011).  The DASH Diet is as follows:

·      7-8 daily servings of grain

·      4-5 daily servings of vegetables

·      4-5 daily servings of fruits

·      2-3 daily servings of low-fat dairy and milk

·      2 or less daily servings of lean meats

·      4-5 daily servings of nuts, seeds, and legumes

·      5 or fewer servings of sweets each week

It is important to make life-style changes or one will increase the risk of suffering another heart attack.  The diet plan that needs to be adopted will help ensure one is eating healthy foods that will help keep the blood pressure and total cholesterol in check.  Starting an exercise program will also help relieve some of the stress from the job and help strengthen the cardio-vascular system.  Both the healthy diet and moderate exercise will help one lose any weight a doctor may have suggested to lose.  All these life-style changes will keep one healthier and help one's blood counts stay in check.

References:

Chen, Michael A. and Zieve, David (2011).  Heart Attack.  Retrieved December 26, 2011, from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0001246/

Kulick, Daniel Lee (2011).  Heart Attack.  Retrieved December 28, 2011, from http://www.medicinenet.com/heart_attack/article.htm

NHLBI (2011). What is High Blood Pressure?  Retrieved on December 28, 2011, from http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health-topics/topics/hbp

VanArsdale, Vicki (2011).  A Normal Total Cholesterol.  Retrieved on December 28, 2011, from http://www.livestrong.com/article/250489-a-normal-total-cholesterol/

WebMD (2011).  High Blood Pressure Diet.  Retrieved on December 29, 2011, from http://www.webmd.com/hypertension-high-blood-pressure/guide/high-blood-pressure-diet

WebMD (2011).  Myocardial Infarction.  Retrieved on December 26, 2011, from http://www.emedicine.medscape.com/article/155919-overview

USDA and the EU: Different approaches to GMOs

The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), along with state governments, regulate genetically modified organisms (GMOs) and are responsible for letting the public which GMO products are safe (Curtis, 2005).  GMOs are used to create plants that are drought resistant, pest resistant, or ripen on the vine while shipping.  There are no regulations requiring companies to mark the labels of GMO plants or animals fed GMO feed.

However, there is a process that must be followed to grow GMO crops.  Companies that wish to produce or grow a GMO crop must first obtain a permit from the USDA (Curtis, 2005).  Common crops, like corn or wheat, can be field tested while the company is under the notification procedure; however, plants used for pharmacology must wait for the permit (Curtis, 2005).  The main factor for the USDA or the FDA is the safety of the food product and not necessarily that it was produced in a new way.

There is a different process for GMOs in Europe, however.  The European Commission requires labeling on products containing more than 0.9% GMO (Habeck, 2003).  The industry must also keep records of products that either contain GMOs or are produced by GMOs (Habeck, 2003).  The European Commission’s labeling of GMO products gives consumers informed consent.   The EU’s regulatory process for GMOs is a longer process than that of the United States.  Because the European Commission regulates both the product and the process, the regulatory process can take up to 2-3 times longer than in the United States (Kelch et al, 1998).  This process was put in place because the EU could not determine the long-term effects of GMOs (Kelch et al, 1998).

These regulations, coupled with the United States inability to measure the amounts of GMO in a product, have led to the European Union banning shipments of United States corn gluten animal feed because there is no effective way to test for Bt10 (Casert, 2005).  The process that the European Commission uses takes too long for the United States crops to be able to be imported.  This has resulted in about a $450 million loss in corn gluten feed for the United States in one year (Casert, 2005).

In 1997, United States representatives met with European Union scientists and regulators to discuss the new GMO regulations.  The purpose of this meeting was to find out the details of the new labeling regulations for GMOs and determine its effect on trade from the United States with countries in the European Union (Reuter, 1997).  The United States representatives were also interested in whether the European Union was going to discipline member countries that went their own way with GMOs  (Reuter, 1997).

On August 18, 2003, the United States joined Argentina and Canada in requesting the World Trade Organization (WTO) settle the dispute between them and the EU over the GMO ban (HKTDC, 2003).  The United States is using testimony from scientists showing the safety of GMOs (IPT, 2003).  The United States Trade Representative and the United States Secretary of Agriculture argue that the actions of the European Union are hurting biotechnology and the bottom line for the farmers (IPT, 2003). 

It is the position of the USDA that GMOs should not need to be labeled as such if there is no significant difference in the nutritional content of the product (Kelch et al, 1998).  Consumer perception is also a factor.  It is possible that consumers would consider a product labeled as GMO negatively even though scientists have approved it.  Also, the USDA believes that because of the “coordinated framework” in place, GMOs are safe and monitored; therefore, adding a label is unnecessary (Kelch et al, 1998).

The WTO has requested the Dispute Settlement Body to set up a panel to help settle the case.  There are several factors that complicate the case.  First, there is no definitive way to measure the amount of GMO in a product.  Second, the USDA and the EU have different approaches to regulating GMOs.  Third, not all member states of the EU are in compliance with the European Union regulations; for example, France does not allow GMOs (Reuter, 1997).   With these factors and the differences in regulating the process of GMOs as well as the product, the WTO may still be years from resolution.

Casert, Raf (2005)  EU to ban suspected GMO corn imports.  Retrieved on June 25, 2012, from http://www.usatoday.com/tech/news/biotech/2005-04-15-eu-bans-gluten-imports_x.htm

Curtis, Patricia (2005)  Guide to Food Laws and Regulations  Blackwell Publishing

Habeck, Martina (2003)  Europe’s new rules on GMOs.  Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 1(8), 400.  Ecological Society of America

HKDTC (2003)  EU’s GMO stance angers US and others, leads to WTO action.  Retrieved on June 25, 2012, from http://info.hktdc.com/alert/eu0318b.htmI

Kelch, David; Simone, Mark; Madell, Mary Lisa (1998)  Biotechnology in Agriculture Confronts Agreements in the WTO.  Retrieved on June 26, 2012, from www.ers.usda.gov/publications/wrs984/wrs984e.pdf

IPT (2003)  USDA takes EU to WTO over GMO.  Retrieved on June 26, 2012, from http://www.iptv.org/mtom/story.cfm/lead/7357/mtom_20030516_2836_lead2

Reuter (1997)  USDA Pressures EU officials over GMO foods.  Retrieved on June 26, 2012, from http://www.gene.ch/gentech/1997/8.96-5.97/msg00210.html

Is nuclear energy worth the risk?

As the world’s population increases, so does the demand for efficient, affordable sources of energy.   For as long as one can remember, man has harnessed the power of the sun, wind, and water for sustainable sources of energy.  These sources of energy are clean, meaning they emit no harmful emissions, and they are renewable, meaning man cannot deplete them.

As more and more people depend on electricity for lighting and heating their homes, cooking their food, recycling their plastics and glass, and even powering their vehicles, any one of these sources may not be able to keep up with demand.  Electric demands tend to have a consistent base load with spikes during certain months and certain times of day; solar and wind energy require a electricity-producing back up due to their intermittent nature (World Nuclear Association, 2011).

Hydroelectric power now supplies approximately 16% of the world’s electricity (World Nuclear Association, 2011).  Wind energy and hydroelectric power work well together as the water supplies energy when the wind is not blowing hard enough to do so (World Nuclear Association, 2011).  However, hydroelectric plants require bodies of water to operate.  A city or town in the middle of a plain or a desert would need a battery back up with either wind or solar power providing the bulk of their energy.  This requires two infrastructures in place if the goal is to use renewable sources of energy.

There is an increased interest in new nuclear plants as energy sources.  This interest stems from the increase in electricity demand as electricity demands are expected to increase by 21% by 2030 (NEI, 2010).  Also, talk of “going green” and protecting the environment is inundating our television, radio, grocery stores, and politics.  Consumers are attracted to how nuclear plants burn “clean” and do not pollute the air, have excellent performance, and provide price stability (NEI, 2010).  In September of 2008, 74% of the people surveyed on nuclear energy were in support of nuclear energy (NEI, 2010).  MIT supported these claims in a study in 2009 that showed that nuclear power does not emit carbon dioxide or other atmospheric pollutants, was renewable, and was efficient (MIT, 2009).

Approximately 20% of the electricity in the United States comes from nuclear power.  The Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) is an example of nuclear energy at use.  The TVA makes enough electricity from three plants to power three million homes in the Tennessee Valley (TVA, 2010).  The TVA also has regular emergency tests and a prompt notification system to provide information to the public in case of emergency (TVA, 2010).

Power plants use heat to generate steam to create electricity.  Nuclear power plants create this heat through fission, or the splitting of atoms (U.SNRC, 2011).  There are two types of nuclear reactors in the United States.  The first is the Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR).  This type of reactor keeps water under pressure; water is heated, but not boiled.  The water in the steam generator and the water in the reactor vessel do not mix (U.S.NRC, 2011).  The second is the Boiling Water Reactor (BWR).  In this system, the heated water boils to turn into steam.  Both the BWR and PWR turn the steam back into water to reuse it (US.NRCC, 2011).

Safety features are built into plants.  The fission process can be stopped to allow a quick shut down.  Reactors can be cooled by releasing steam or by using cold water.  Barriers are in place to protect the environment and workers from radioactivity.  Finally drills are practiced on a regular basis so staff will be ready in the case of a real emergency (U.S.NRC, 2011).

In the 1960’s and 1970’s, nuclear plants were issued a building permit based on design only.  However, starting in 1989, the Nuclear Regulatory Commission changed that by focusing more on safety and allowing the public to be more involved (NEI, 2010).  The three-step licensing process now involves design certification, where the public has access to review and comment on the proposed site and design.  Early site approval can happen at any point with the proposed site being held for years until the design is approved and the construction begins.  Early site approval includes a site safety analysis, an environmental report, and emergency planning information.  Finally, the combined construction and operating license can be approved.  This step encompasses any resolutions of issues that arose in the first steps (NEI, 2010).

The Nuclear Regulatory Commission will license a nuclear power plant for forty years.  After the forty year time period, the license is either reissued or the plant is shut down and decommissioned (USNRC, 2011).  When decommissioning a nuclear plant, workers reduce the level of radiation until the land is safe to be used for other things.  Plants have up to 60 years to complete closing.  There are three methods of decommissioning:  1) dismantling, 2) safe storage of waste, and 3) entombment (USNRC, 2011).

When the Nuclear Regulatory Commission, politicians, and owners look for building sites for a new nuclear plant, they look at three things.  First, the state must not have a law that bans nuclear plants.  Currently, California, Hawaii, Illinois, Montana, West Virginia, and Wisconsin all ban nuclear plants (DePillis, 2009).  Second, they look at the topography of the proposed site.  The site needs to be near water, needs at least 500 acres of space, and needs to be near a growing population that will have energy demands (DePillis, 2009).  Third, they look at the local community and whether or not they are accepting of a nuclear plant (DePillis, 2009).  It makes things easier if there is little or no need to persuade the populace of the need for a nuclear plant.

There are, however, a few cons to nuclear power.  For one, nuclear plants cost more to build than regular plants due to the licensing regulations listed above.  Also, due to past and recent headlines, there is a perceived adverse safety to health and environment.  There is also the question of potential security risks and long-term management of nuclear waste (MIT, 2009).  The populace surrounding a proposed site for a nuclear plant will need the cons addressed.

Nuclear plants generate two types of waste.  The first is high-level waste.  This is spent fuel (fuel used in the nuclear reactor) and is highly radioactive and very dangerous.  This type of waste must be cooled for several years either in deep pools inside the plant or off-site (USNRC, 2011).  The second is low-level waste.  This comes from nuclear reactors, hospitals, or universities.  Since it is not as dangerous as high-level waste, it is traditionally shipped to a low-level waste disposal facility set up by each state (USNRC, 2011).

It 1987, Yucca Mountain, NV was a proposed site for disposal of high-level waste.  The heated debates and high emotions of the time reached all the way to Arizona.  The government suggested the waste be stored for no more than 100 years since there was no local support for permanent storage; the opposing force argued it would be dangerous and costly to truck nuclear waste hundreds of miles to Yucca and hundreds of miles back to their plants for processing when technology was able to process the waste (Whaley, 2009).  The site was originally approved; however, it is not currently being federally funded.

One of the largest hurdles builders of nuclear plants need to overcome is the opinion of the local population.  There have been three widely publicized nuclear meltdowns in recent years.  The negative press and probable cancers caused by the radiation leaks causes the general public to pause before accepting a nuclear plant near their home.  Even though nuclear plants undergo stringent safety inspections and have had few accidents that have been proven to cause damage to the environment and cancers to humans, those few cases stick out in human memory.

The latest was the melt down caused by a March 2011 tsunami at the Fukushima Duiichi Nuclear Plant in Japan.  The news was filled with information on contaminated land, water, and fish supplies.  There has been no substantiated reports of cancer by nuclear run off; however, there has not been enough time to gather the necessary data.

The only major accident in the United States happened in March of 1979 at Three-Mile Island near Harrisburg, PA.  There are two plants at Three Mile Island, TMI-1 and TMI-2.  TMI-1 began construction in 1968 and began generating electricity in 1974 (Smithsonian, n.d.).  TMI-2 started construction in 1969 and began operating in 1978.  The reactor’s operators of TMI-2 falsified operational data in order to avoid interruptions of the reactor’s operation from the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (Smithsonian, n.d.).  In the  beginning, the controllers underestimated the damage, and two days later, the Nuclear Regulator Commission over-estimated the danger.  Unsubstantiated reports then cause evacuations and calls for potassium iodide solution for anyone suffering from thyroid problems (Smithsonian, n.d.).  The extent of the damage came to light in 1983 during a computer-controlled ultrasonic survey (Smithsonian, n.d.).   There have been no substantiated illnesses linked to the accident.

Another well-known nuclear accident is Chernobyl.  A sudden surge in power at the Unit 4 reactor of Chernobyl, Ukraine on April 26, 1986, caused massive amounts of radioactive material to be released into the environment (USNRC, 2009).  No humans live in the area still.   The evacuated residents and workers are still being monitored for nuclear-caused cancers and illnesses.  There have been deaths and radiation illness linked to the accident in those who were on-site at the time; however, there have been no substantiated illnesses in those being monitored.

These three cases demonstrate how human error and lack of communication can cause accidents that may or may not cause illness and environmental damage.  Sensationalism in the press can cause strong emotion in the populace before all the facts can be gathered.   These cases also bring forth questions the public would need answered before a nuclear plant can be built near their homes.  The new regulations from the Nuclear Regulatory Commission allow for more communication between nuclear committees and the general public.  This allows for the public to know exactly what safety measures are in place and how potentially dangerous meltdowns will be prevented.  It also will allow for the public to know exactly how nuclear energy can be beneficial to their community.  Nuclear energy tends to be consistent and stable, as stated in the MIT study, and it is renewable.  If the regulators have a good plan for the storage of nuclear waste and strong safeguards in place, there would be less apprehension about a plant being built 25 miles or 12.5 miles from where people live.

References:

DePillis, Lydia (2009) A Nuclear Power Plant with A View.  Retrieved on January 15, 2012, from www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/explainer/2009/07/a_nuclear_power_plant_with_a_view.html

MIT (2009)  The Future of Nuclear Power:  An Interdisciplinary MIT Study.  Retrieved January 15, 2012, from web.mit.edu/nuclearpower/

NEI (2010)  Licensing New Nuclear Power Plants.  Retrieved on January 15, 2012, from www.nei.org/resourcesandstats/documentlibrary/newplants/factsheet/licensingnewnuclearpowerplants/

Smithsonian (n.d.)  Three Mile Island:  The Inside Story.  Retrieved on January 16, 2012, from americanhistory.si.edu/tmi/

TVA (2010)  Nuclear Energy.  Retrieved on January 15, 2012, from http://www.tva.gov/pwer/nuclear/index.htm

USNRC (2009)  Backgrounder on Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant Accident.  Retrieved on January 15, 2012, from http://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/doc-collections/facts-sheets/

USNRC (2011)  Students’ Corner.  Retrieved on January 15, 2012, from http://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/basic-ref/students.html

Whaley, Sean (2009)  Reno Chamber Hears Pros, Cons of Yucca Mountain Project.  Retrieved on January 15, 2012, from www.nevadanewsbureau.com/2009/11/12/reno-chamber-hears-pros-cons-of-yucca-mountain-project/

World Nuclear Association (2011)  Renewable Energy and Electricity.  Retrieved on January 15, 2012, from world-nuclear.org/info/inf10.html

Phenylketonuria (PKU)

An inborn error of metabolism happens when an infant is born with a defect in one of the enzyme systems that metabolize each of the 8-10 essential amino acids (Stanfield and Hui, 2010).  This defect causes products to accumulate in the blood or urine.  The type of defect will determine which products accumulate and which side effects the accumulation will have on the child.

Phenylketonuria (PKU) is an inborn error of metabolism involving phenylalanine and tyrosine.  Both of these essential amino acids utilize the enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase, and when this enzyme is absent or low-activity, the body cannot change phenylalanine to tyrosine and phenylalanine and phenylpyruvic acid start to accumulate in the blood and urine (Stanfield and Hui, 2010).

The Guthrie Test is a heel prick done when the infant is 2-5 days old.  The doctor uses this test to measure the phenylalanine levels in the infant’s blood.  Normal blood contains 1-2mg phenylalanine/100ml of plasma; PKU blood contains 15-30mg of phenylalanine/100m of plasma (Stanfield and Hui, 2010).  The test results are more accurate if the doctor waits until the infant has been drinking breast milk or formula for at least 2-3 days; there could be an incorrect result if the test is done within 24 hours of birth (WebMD, 2010).   A second, and sometimes a third, test is done at approximately 2 weeks and 4 weeks of age to monitor

phenylalanine levels in the blood, especially if the first test results were positive for PKU. 

It is important to diagnose and treat PKU early, which is why a doctor will perform 2 or 3 tests in the first 3 months of life.  Once PKU is diagnosed, the doctor will continue to monitor the phenylalanine levels in the blood to ensure the modified diet is effective.  If phenylalanine levels are allowed to build up in the blood, the child can suffer irreversible brain damage, seizure, and intellectual disability (WebMD, 2010).  The symptoms of untreated PKU are as follows: 

·      The infant loses interest in his surroundings by 3-6 months.

·      The child is obviously developmentally delayed by age 1.

·      The child is irritable.

·      The child displays behavior problems.

·      The child may smell musty.

·      The child may have dry skin or rashes.

·      The child will suffer seizures.

·      The child will be physically well developed.

·      The child will have blonder hair than the rest of the family.

(March of Dimes, 2008). 

The lighter hair and eyes is due to the lack of ability to convert phenylalanine to tyrosine.  Tyrosine is responsible for making pigments, and if the child cannot create tyrosine or cannot create enough tyrosine, she will have less pigmentation than a person who does (Stanfield and Hui, 2010).

PKU infants are put on a strict diet limiting phenylalanine intake; however, some phenylalanine is necessary for normal growth and development (Stanfield and Hui, 2010).  As phenylalanine is found in most animal products, a PKU child can have an allotted amount of milk.  For healthy developmental development, the child must continue with low-protein from food sources and use a special high-protein, low-phenylalanine formula while developing (WebMD, 2008). 

Once a child is eating whole foods, the phenylalanine, protein, and calorie contents of each food introduced must be known in order to group foods into exchange lists (Stanfield and Hui, 2010).  The age a PKU child is allowed to relax the diet restrictions varies from source to source.  Normal diet may resume at age 5 with a chance of developmental problems in the teenage years (Stanfield and Hui, 2010).  However, other studies have found that children who followed the low-phenylalanine diet until at least 10 had less loss of IQ than those who reverted to a normal diet at age 5 or 8 (Smith, et al, 1991).  The best recommendation would be to continue with the PKU restrictions throughout the teenage years.

 

References:

March of Dimes (2008)  PKU (Phenylketonuria).  Retrieved on February 11, 2012, from www.marchof dimes.com/baby/birthdefects_pku.html

Smith, M; Beasley, G; Ades, AE (1991)  Effect on intelligence of relaxing the low phenylalanine diet in phenylketonuria.  Retrieved on February 11, 2012, from www.ncbi.nlm.ih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1792859

Stanfield, Peggy and Hui, YH (2010)  Nutrition and Diet Therapy, 5^th Edition.  Jones and Bartlet

WebMD (2010) Phenylketonuria (PKU) Test.  Retrieved on February 11, 2012, from www.webmd.com/parenting/baby/phenylketonuria-pku-test

The endocrine system and homeostasis

In the Journal of Biological Physics, Conrad et al (2009) propose using positive and negative feedback loops for restoring homeostasis in the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal system.  This system is responsible for controlling stress levels and is stimulated in the second half of the night, when a person is in deep sleep.  If a person cannot reach deep REM sleep, the HPA system cannot restore homeostasis, and that person could suffer depression or obesity.

Just as the HPA system can affect mental health and weight, the pancreas can affect the body’s ability to utilize insulin.   There are a great many studies on the effect of the endocrine system and Diabetes Mellitus.   The pancreatic islets contain alpha cells (A cells) that secrete glucagon and beta cells (B cells) that secrete insulin.   Glucagon controls gycogenolysis; this increases blood sugars.  These elevated blood sugars trigger the pancreas to release insulin to lower the blood sugar levels.  In type 1 diabetes mellitus, the pancreatic islets secrete too little insulin; in type 2 diabetes mellitus, the pancreatic islets secrete insulin but there is an abnormality of insulin receptors (Thibodeau and Patton, 2008). 

In Nutrition Reviews, Wang et al (2012) discuss the protein PANDER and its affect on beta-cell function.  This could lead to repressed glucose-stimulated insulin secretion, leading to Type 2 diabetes.  Finding a way to increase the effect of PANDER on B cell functions could help type 2 diabetics with their insulin production and effectiveness.

In Clinical Endocrinology, Wang et al (2012) also studied the effect of pancreatic secretions on diabetics.  In this study, they studied the glycemic variability of non-diabetic individuals and newly diagnosed type 2 diabetics.  They found more intraday glucose fluctuations in newly diagnosed type 2 patients and patients with impaired glucose regulation than non-diabetic individuals (Wang et al, 2012).

These articles teach us that the endocrine system must work properly for the body to maintain homeostasis and avoid mild to serious diseases.  Current research is still working on finding answers to the best way to utilize the knowledge scientists already have about the functioning of the endocrine system to help combat these diseases.  The first step is to understand how the endocrine system functions with the rest of the body to maintain homeostasis.

References:

Conrad, Matthias; Hubold, Christian; Fischer, Bernd; Peters, Achim. (2009)  Modeling the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal system:  homeostasis by interacting positive and negative feedback.  Journal of Biological Physics, (2009) 35: 149-162.  Springer Science & Business Media

Thibodeau, Gary & Patton, Kevin (2008)  Structure & Function of the Body, 13^th Edition.  Mosby Elsevier

Wang, Chun; Lu, Lifang; Yang, Yanzhi; Chen, Dawei; Liu, Guanjian; Chen, Lihong; Song, Yuanxia; He, Liping; Li, Xiujun; Tian, Hasming; Jia, Weiping; Ran, Xingwu (2012).  Glucose fluctuations in subjects with normal glucose tolerance, impaired glucose regulation and newly diagnosed type 2 diabetes mellitus.  Clinical Endocrinology, Vol 76, Issue 6: 810-815.  Wiley-Blackwell.

Wang, Chunjiong; Burkhardt, Brant R; Guan, Youfei; Yang, Jichun (2012)  Role of pancreatic-derived factor in type 2 diabetes:  evidence from pancreatic Beta cells and liver.  Nutrition Reviews Vol. 70(2):  100-106.  Wiley-Blackwell